PASSAGE 3 – Questions 21-30
The perfume story
The craft of perfumery has an ancient and global heritage. The art flourished in Ancient Rome, where the emperors were said to bathe in scent. After the fall of Rome, much of the knowledge was lost, but survived in Islamic civilizations in the Middle Ages. Arab and Persian pharmacists developed essential oils from the aromatic plants of the Indian peninsula. They developed the processes of distillation and suspension in alcohol, which allowed for smaller amounts of raw materials to be used than in the ancient process, by which flower petals were soaked in warm oil. This knowledge was carried back to European monasteries during the Crusades.
At first, the use of fragrances was primarily associated with healing. Aromatic alcoholic waters were ingested as well as used externally. Fragrances were used to purify the air, both for spiritual and health purposes. During the Black Death, the bubonic plague was thought to have resulted from a bad odour which could be averted by inhaling pleasant fragrances such as cinnamon. The Black Death led to an aversion to using water for washing, and so perfume was commonly used as a cleaning agent.
Later on, the craft of perfume re-entered Europe, and was centred in Venice, chiefly because it was an important trade route and a centre for glass-making. Having such materials at hand was essential for the distillation process. In the late seventeenth century, trade soared in France, when Louis XIV brought in policies of protectionism and patronage which stimulated the purchase of luxury goods. Here, perfumery was the preserve of glove-makers. The link arose since the tanning of leather required putrid substances. Consequently, the gloves were scented before they were sold and worn. A glove and perfume makers' guild had existed here since 1190. Entering it required 7 years of formal training under a master perfumer.
The trade in perfume flourished during the reign of Louis XV, as the master glove-and-perfume makers, particularly those trading in Paris, received patronage from the royal court, where it is said that a different perfume was used each week. The perfumers diversified into other cosmetics including soaps, powders, white face paints and hair dyes. They were not the sole sellers of beauty products. Mercers, spicers, vinegar-makers and wig-makers were all cashing in on the popularity of perfumed products. Even simple shopkeepers were coming up with their own concoctions to sell.
During the eighteenth century, more modern, capitalist perfume industry began to emerge, particularly in Britain where there was a flourishing consumer society. In France, the revolution initially disrupted the perfume trade due to its association with aristocracy, however, it regained momentum later as a wider range of markets were sought both in the domestic and overseas markets. The guild system was abolished in 1791, allowing new high-end perfumery shops to open in Paris.
Perfume became less associated with health in 1810 with a Napoleonic ordinance which required perfumers to declare the ingredients of all products for internal consumption. Unwilling to divulge their secrets, traders concentrated on products for external use. Napoleon affected the industry in other ways too. With French ports blockaded by the British during the Napoleonic wars, the London perfumers were able to dominate the markets for some time.
One of the significant changes in the nineteenth century was the idea of branding. Until then, trademarks had had little significance in the perfumery where goods were consumed locally, although they had a long history in other industries. One of the pioneers in this field was Rimmel who was nationalized as a British citizen in 1857. He took advantage of the spread of railroads to reach customers in wider markets. To do this, he built a brand which conveyed prestige and quality, and were worth paying a premium for. He recognised the role of design in enhancing the value of his products, hiring a French lithographer to create the labels for his perfume bottles.
The purpose of the text is to
- A. compare the perfumes from different countries
- B. describe the history of perfume making
- C. describe the problems faced by perfumers
- D. explain the different uses of perfume over time
- A. They created perfume by soaking flower petals in oil
- B. They dominated perfume making after the fall of the Roman Empire
- C. They took raw materials for their perfumes from India
- D. They created a technique which required fewer plant materials
- A. During the Black Death, the bubonic plague was thought to have resulted from a bad odour which could be averted by inhaling pleasant fragrances such as cinnamon.
- B. To explain why washing was not popular during the Black Death
- C. To show how improper use of perfume caused widespread disease.
- D. To illustrate how perfumes used to be ingested to treat disease
- E. To give an example of how fragrances were used for health purposes
- A. Because it was an important trade route
- B. Because of the rise in the glove-making industry
- C. Because of the introduction of new trade laws
- D. Because of a new fashion in scented gloves
- A. Bad-smelling
- B. Rare
- C. Prestigious
- D. Numerous
- A. Louis XIV
- B. Louis XV
- C. Rimmel
- D. Napoleon
- A. Master glove and perfume makers created a new perfume each week
- B. Mercers, spicers and other traders began to call themselves masters
- C. The Royal Court only bought perfume from masters
- D. Cosmetics were still only popular within the Royal Courts
- A. The industry declined then rose again
- B. The industry collapsed and took a long time to recover
- C. The industry was greatly boosted
- D. The industry lost most of its overseas customers
- A. the French were unable to export perfumes for a period of time
- B. the production of perfume ceased during the Napoleonic wars
- C. Napoleon's new laws affected the profitability of perfume-making
- D. the French Revolution meant that there were fewer customers in France
- A. He created attractive packaging for his products
- B. He was one of the first people to utilise trademarks
- C. His products were more expensive than other brands
- D. He transported his goods to potential customers by train
PASSAGE 4 – Questions 31-40
Armenian Culture
The Armenians became active in literature and many art forms at a very early point in their civilization. Metalworking and architecture have been traced back to about 1000 В.С. The beginning of truly national art is usually fixed at the onset of the Christian era. The three great artistic periods coincided with times of independence or semi-independence: from the fifth to the seventh century; the Bagratid golden age of the ninth and tenth centuries; and the era of the kingdom of Lesser Armenia in the twelfth to fourteenth centuries.
Of especially high quality in the earlier periods were works in gold and bronze, as well as temples, military fortifications, and aqueducts. In the early Christian era, classical church architecture was adapted in a series of cathedrals. The circular domes typical of Armenian churches were copied in Western Europe and in Ottoman Turkey. The best example of the distinctive architectural sculpture used to adorn such churches is the early tenth-century Church of the Holy Cross on an island in Lake Van. The architecture of contemporary Erevan is distinguished by the use of pinkish tufa stone and a combination of traditional Armenian and Russian styles.
Armenian painting is generally considered to have originated with the illumination of religious manuscripts that thrived from the ninth to the seventeenth century. Armenian painters in Cilicia and elsewhere enriched Byzantine and Western formulas with their unique use of color and their inclusion of Oriental themes acquired from the Mongols. Many unique Armenian illuminated manuscripts remain in museums in the West.
The nineteenth century saw a blooming of Armenian painting. Artists from that period, such as the portrait painter Hacop Hovnatanian and the seascape artist Ivan Aivazovsky, continue to enjoy international reputations. Notable figures of the twentieth century include the unorthodox Alexander Bazhbeuk-Melikian, who lived a persecuted existence in Tbilisi, and the émigré surrealist Arshile Gorky (pseudonym of Vosdanik Adoian), who greatly influenced a generation of young American artists in New York. Other émigré painters in various countries have continued the tradition as well.
The Armenian literary tradition began early in the fifth century A.D. with religious tracts and histories of the Armenians. The most important of these were written by Agathangelos, Egishe, Movses Khorenatsi, and Pavstos Buzand. A secular literature developed in the early modern period, and in the eighteenth century Armenian Catholic monks of the Mekhitarist order began publishing ancient texts, modern histories, grammars, and literature. In the nineteenth century, Armenians developed their own journalism and public theater. Khachatur Abovian wrote the first Armenian novel, Verk Haiastani (The Wounds of Armenia), in the early 1840s. Armenian literature and drama often depict struggles against religious and ethnic oppression and the aspirations of Armenians for security and self-expression.
What is the passage about?
- A. religion and culture in Armenia
- B. Christianty and church architecture in Armenia
- C. the history of metal working, architecture, paiting, and literture in Armenia
- D. the thriving of fine arts in Armenia
- A. Paintings and literature work in Armenia were originated from Cilicia
- B. Armenian painting and literature originated with the adoption of Christianity
- C. Armenian art and literature were copied from Ottoman Turkey
- D. Without Christianity, there would have been no art and literature in Armenia
- A. blessed
- B. not religious
- C. civil
- D. non spiritual
- A. the ninth century
- B. the seventeenth century
- C. the twentieth century
- D. the nineteenth century
- A. illustration
- B. copying
- C. decoration
- D. explanation
- A. times of Armenian independence or semi-independence
- B. the golden and brozen ages
- C. the illumination of religious manuscripts
- D. classical church architecture
- A. at the end of the first paragraph
- B. at the end of the second paragraph
- C. in the second paragraph, after the third sentence
- D. in the first paragraph, after the third sentence
- A. Byzantine artists used Armenian paint colors
- B. Ottoman Turkey and Europe copied the circular domes typical of Armenian churches
- C. Armenian artists had international reputations
- D. Erevan applied only Russian style in his architect work
- A. flourishing
- B. thriving
- C. developing
- D. withering
- A. prevent
- B. distort
- C. hide
- D. describe
