PASSAGE 2 – Questions 11–20

Civilization

Between 4000 and 3000 B.C., significant technological developments began to transform the Neolithic towns. The invention of writing enabled records to be kept, and the use of metals marked a new level of human control over the environment and its resources. Already before 4000 B.C., craftspeople had discovered that metal-bearing rocks could be heated to liquefy metals, which could then be cast in molds to produce tools and weapons that were more useful than stone instruments. Although copper was the first metal to be utilized in producing tools, after 4000 B.C. craftspeople in western Asia discovered that a combination of copper and tin produced bronze, a much harder and more durable metal than copper. Its widespread use has led historians to speak of a Bronze Age from around 3000 to 1200 B.C., when bronze was increasingly replaced by iron.

At first, Neolithic settlements were hardly more than villages. But as their inhabitants mastered the art of farming, they gradually began to give birth to more complex human societies. As wealth increased, such societies began to develop armies and to build walled cities. By the beginning of the Bronze Age, the concentration of larger numbers of people in the river valleys of Mesopotamia and Egypt was leading to a whole new pattern for human life.

As we have seen, early human beings formed small groups that developed a simple culture that enabled them to survive. As human societies grew and developed greater complexity, a new form of human existence — called civilization — came into being. A civilization is a complex culture in which large numbers of human beings share a number of common elements. Historians have identified a number of basic characteristics of civilization, most of which are evident in the Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations. These include: (1) an urban revolution; (2) a distinct religious structure — the gods were deemed crucial to the community’s success, and professional priestly classes, as stewards of the gods’ property, regulated relations with the gods; (3) new political and military structures; (4) a new social structure based on economic power — while kings and an upper class of priests, political leaders, and warriors dominated, there also existed large groups of free people (farmers, artisans, craftspeople) and at the very bottom, socially, a class of slaves; (5) the development of writing; and (6) new forms of significant artistic and intellectual activity, which occupied a prominent place in urban environments.

Why early civilizations developed remains difficult to explain. A number of possible explanations of the beginning of civilization have been suggested. Some scholars have adhered to a material explanation. Material forces, such as the growth of food surpluses, made possible the specialization of labor and development of large communities with bureaucratic organization. Some historians have argued that nonmaterial forces, primarily religious, provided the sense of unity and purpose that made such organized activities possible.

11. Which of the following is the best definition of a civilization?

PASSAGE 3 – Questions 21–30

The Story of Silk

The history of the world’s most luxurious fabric, from ancient China to the present day.

Silk is a fine, smooth material produced from the cocoons — soft protective shells — that are made by mulberry silkworms. Legend has it that it was Lei Tzu, wife of the Yellow Emperor, ruler of China in about 3000 BC, who discovered silkworms. While it is unknown just how much of this is true, it is certainly known that silk cultivation has existed in China for several millennia.

Originally, silkworm farming was solely restricted to women, and it was they who were responsible for the growing, harvesting and weaving. Silk quickly grew into a symbol of status, and originally, only royalty were entitled to have clothes made of silk. The rules were gradually relaxed over the years until finally during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911 AD), even peasants, the lowest caste, were also entitled to wear silk. Sometime during the Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD), silk was so prized that it was also used as a unit of currency. Government officials were paid their salary in silk, and farmers paid their taxes in grain and silk. Silk was also used as diplomatic gifts by the emperor. Fishing lines, bowstrings, musical instruments and paper were all made using silk.

Demand for this exotic fabric eventually created the lucrative trade route now known as the Silk Road, taking silk westward and bringing gold, silver and wool to the East. It was named the Silk Road after its most precious commodity, which was considered to be worth more than gold.

With the mulberry silkworm being native to China, the country was the world’s sole producer of silk for many hundreds of years. The secret of silk-making eventually reached the rest of the world via the Byzantine Empire, which ruled over the Mediterranean region of southern Europe, North Africa and the Middle East during the period 330–1453 AD. In the seventh century, the Arabs conquered Persia, capturing their magnificent silks in the process. Silk production thus spread through Africa, Sicily and Spain as the Arabs swept through these lands.

The nineteenth century and industrialization saw the downfall of the European silk industry. Cheaper Japanese silk, trade in which was greatly facilitated by the opening of the Suez Canal, was one of the many factors driving the trend. Then in the twentieth century, new man-made fibres, such as nylon, started to be used in what had traditionally been silk products, such as stockings and parachutes. Japan was to remain the world’s biggest producer of raw silk, and practically the only major exporter of raw silk, until the 1970s. However, in more recent decades, China has gradually recaptured its position as the world’s biggest producer and exporter of raw silk and silk yarn.

21. According to the legend, where were silkworms first discovered?

PASSAGE 4 – Questions 31-40

Free-standing sculpture that is molded or carved is a type familiar to almost everyone. Although certain free-standing figures or groups of figures can have only a single side intended for viewing, others are completed on all sides. As with all other forms of art, the ultimate shape of a sculpture reflects the artist’s vision of individuals or experiences represented by the work. Throughout history, people everywhere have discovered a need for sculpture as a record of events and feelings.

Materials which can be sculpted do much to contribute to the artist’s imagination. Wood, stone, metal, and various types of plastic and synthetics are all used as sculpting media. When sculptures are made of stone, wood, ivory, or even ice, the sculptor carves or chips the substance to reduce it to the necessary shape. Developing a sculptured image on all sides represents a change from the older approach when artists left the back portion of the figure unfinished and rough. In fact, sculpture in relief is completely attached to the flat background material and appears to be a part of it. Relief, which is completed only on one side intended for viewing, was the first type of sculpture created by man, when ancient sculptors removed the background material in a side of a tree or a cave to make their drawing appear more realistic.

While creating a statue, the artist depends on the appropriate lighting to develop the figure because the quality of the final product relies on the interplay between light and shade. When the work is finished, the sculpture must be displayed in the same light as it was originally created. If a light from a source is too weak or too strong, the effect that the sculptor intended may be lost. For example, in painting, the light and shade give the image shape and solidity that cannot be altered by an external light in which it is displayed. When a sculpture is exhibited, the artist's work is brought to life by light, and its character can be altered by the control of the light source. A fundamental difference between a painting and a sculpture is that when viewing a painting, the audience can only see the point of view that the painter had intended. A free-standing sculpture can be seen from practically any angle. The job of the sculptor is then to attain the quality and the volume of the image from any possible point of view.

In addition to carving a work, sculptures can be cast. In the process of casting, a sculpture can be reproduced in a mold when a liquefied medium is poured into a shape. After the material from which the sculpture is made hardens, the mold is removed, and the work is cleaned of the excess and polished. Casting allows the artist to produce as many replicas as needed. Most commercially sold sculptures are made in this way. Casting metals requires special care and skill. Bronze is the preferred metal because of its versatility and malleability. To make bronze sculpture, the space in a mold is filled with wax until it is melted by the heated metal.

31. What is the main topic of this passage?